HUMAN OSTEOLOGY, TAPHONOMY, & FORENSIC RECOVERY OF
HUMAN REMAINS
BELLINGHAM, WA | SEPTEMBER 18 - 22, 2023
HUMAN OSTEOLOGY, TAPHONOMY, & FORENSIC RECOVERY OF
This course has been approved for 40 hours of certification/recertification training credit by the IAI Crime Scene Certification Board.
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Instructors:
Dr. Hillary R. Parsons & Dr. Teresa "Lilly" White Location: Whatcom County Emergency Operation Center 3888 Sound Way Bellingham WA 98229 Hours: 8:00 am - 5:00 pm Tuition: $929.00 This course is presented in partnership with the International Association for Identification. |
Human Osteology, Taphonomy, & Forensic Recovery of Human Remains
The role of the forensic anthropologist in the medico-legal system is to assist investigators with the identification of deceased individuals, particularly those in advanced stages of decomposition and those who have skeletonized. Forensic anthropologists specialize in the detailed archaeological recovery of human remains from a variety of contexts, conduct biological and forensic analyses of human remains, and have expert training in detecting patterns of trauma, postmortem alteration of remains, and estimating the time since death. Since forensic anthropology employs the principles of anthropology to analyze legal problems involving human osteological material, it is an applied science that embraces both anthropological and forensic studies.
Workshop Objectives: Attendees of this hands-on workshop will learn proper search and recovery methods used to locate, document, and recover human remains. Improper recovery techniques, however well intentioned, have the potential to destroy or leave behind valuable information that may compromise the investigation or hinder the identification process.
Basic Human Osteology and Taphonomy
Forensic anthropology incorporates concepts and methods from biological anthropology (the study of the physical aspects of humanity). Identifying unknown individuals is a key part of forensic anthropology. Anthropologists assist in identifications primarily by constructing a biological profile. This includes estimating age, sex, stature, and ancestry, as well as identifying specific characteristics, like diseases or injuries.
Human osteology is the study of the bones of the skeleton, including their names, placement, articulations with other bones, visible features and so forth. Beyond recognizing the names of bones, forensic anthropologists must understand various aspects of the skeleton that help them to interpret osteological remains of medicolegal importance.
Forensic taphonomy is the study of the postmortem changes to human remains, focusing largely on environmental effects—including decomposition in a variety of conditions and interaction with plants, insects, and other animals.
Examples:
Is it bone?
The first thing the examining anthropologist must determine is whether the material is bone. A surprising number of other materials may be mistaken for bone, especially if they are covered with dirt or other substances. Ceramic shards, plastic, wood fragments, rocks, small bits of concrete can all be mistaken for bones or bone fragments. To ensure the material is bone, the anthropologist cleans the object and examines it closely, under magnification if necessary.
Is it human?
Once the anthropologist is sure that the material is bone, they must determine whether it came from a human or a non-human animal. All mammals share a generalized skeletal template, meaning they all have the same bones in roughly the same locations: a skull, spine (which ends in a tail), ribs (which support the internal organs), and four sets of limb bones. However, the shape of the bones and the way they relate to each other, differ between animals. By examining the size, shape, and structure of a bone, an anthropologist can determine if it is human.
If the Remains are human, was a crime committed?
Forensic anthropologists are also trained to examine evidence regarding the circumstances surrounding the death of an individual. This involves analyzing skeletal trauma and differentiating between injuries caused by bullets, sharp objects, blunt objects, or other instruments. Sharp force trauma results when a narrow or pointed object hits a small area. The stabs, slashes, and cuts typical of sharp force can penetrate deep enough to leave cut marks on the bone. In contrast, blunt force trauma results from a larger implement hitting a much broader area. Blunt force trauma can cause fractures of the arm and leg bones or crush and shatter the flat bones of the skull. Projectile trauma involves a high force applied over a small area. Projectile trauma can involve bullets, arrows, shrapnel, or any other small object delivered at high velocity. The damage caused by projectile trauma can be used to indicate the direction of travel of the projectile. The anthropologist may also find other forms of trauma including strangulation, electrocution, chemical or heat related trauma.
In addition to the injuries themselves, the patterns of injuries present on a body can be important to the case. Multiple, severe blunt injuries over the whole body may suggest a fall from a great height or a car accident. Sharp force injuries to the hands and lower arms may indicate defense wounds. The direction of projectile wounds can also be used to support or refute a suspect's story. It is the anthropologist's task to carefully record all trauma according to type, location, and number to reconstruct the overall picture of what happened to a person at the time of their death. And although anthropologists are not legally responsible for determining cause of death or manner of death, the information they collect can help the coroner/death investigator or medical examiner make their official judgment on the case.
Topics to be covered on Basic Human Osteology and Taphonomy include, but are not limited to:
Forensic Archaeological Approaches to Recovering Human Remains
FA methods/techniques utilized most at outdoor scenes but can be used indoors.
Outdoor vs. Indoor scenes (limited time, hazardous or remote conditions, threat of lost or destroyed evidence, boundaries are not well defined, etc.)
Every scene is unique; techniques must be adapted to each scene.
General methodology of excavation and removal of remains is the same.
“Proper implementation of forensic archaeological techniques provides a scientific basis for interpreting the context in which remains, and associated evidence are found” (Christensen et. al, 2014).
Search Techniques Used in Locating Human Remains Outdoors
Non-intrusive (Ground-penetrating radar (GPR), conductivity meters, resistivity meters, magnetometers, metal detectors, LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), side-scan sonar, drones, cadaver dogs, line searches, etc.)
Intrusive (probe searches, shovel tests, forensic backhoes, bulldozers, shovels, rakes, etc.)
Types of Outdoor Search Scenes
Planning the Search
Use Pin flags or flagging tape to mark potential evidentiary items.
Be prepared with proper tools/equipment/methods.
Indicators to look for when searching for human remains:
Once Scene Has Been Determined:
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Advantages:
Data can be downloaded and used in Global Information Systems (GIS) software that integrates your coordinates into pre-existing maps.
Very portable
Disadvantages:
Most handheld units have a wide range of variability (3 m to 15 m) but are much more accurate than those used before 2000.
GPS error rates overall are variable from unit to unit and it is recommended that readings be confirmed by an alternate mapping method or a total station if GPS units are used in forensic work.
Example: Forensic investigation of plane wreckage on a glacier in Alaska
Survey Techniques
Selecting a Framework for Mapping
Control-Point Mapping
Grid-system Mapping
Setting Limits and Datum for Mapping
Mapping on a slope
Scene Documentation Should Include:
Removing Remains and Associated Evidence
Packaging and Storage of Human Skeletal Remains
Interpretation and Reporting
Course Wrap-up and Assessment
References
Byers, Steven N. 2008. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology Third Addition. University of New Mexico-Valencia. Pearson.
Christensen, A.M., N.V. Passalacqua, and E.J. Bartelink. 2014. Forensic Anthropology: Current Methods and Practice. Boston: Elsevier.
Dupras, T.L., J.J. Schultz, S.M. Wheeler, and L.J. Williams. 2006. Forensic Recovery of Human Remains: Archaeological Approaches. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
The role of the forensic anthropologist in the medico-legal system is to assist investigators with the identification of deceased individuals, particularly those in advanced stages of decomposition and those who have skeletonized. Forensic anthropologists specialize in the detailed archaeological recovery of human remains from a variety of contexts, conduct biological and forensic analyses of human remains, and have expert training in detecting patterns of trauma, postmortem alteration of remains, and estimating the time since death. Since forensic anthropology employs the principles of anthropology to analyze legal problems involving human osteological material, it is an applied science that embraces both anthropological and forensic studies.
Workshop Objectives: Attendees of this hands-on workshop will learn proper search and recovery methods used to locate, document, and recover human remains. Improper recovery techniques, however well intentioned, have the potential to destroy or leave behind valuable information that may compromise the investigation or hinder the identification process.
Basic Human Osteology and Taphonomy
Forensic anthropology incorporates concepts and methods from biological anthropology (the study of the physical aspects of humanity). Identifying unknown individuals is a key part of forensic anthropology. Anthropologists assist in identifications primarily by constructing a biological profile. This includes estimating age, sex, stature, and ancestry, as well as identifying specific characteristics, like diseases or injuries.
Human osteology is the study of the bones of the skeleton, including their names, placement, articulations with other bones, visible features and so forth. Beyond recognizing the names of bones, forensic anthropologists must understand various aspects of the skeleton that help them to interpret osteological remains of medicolegal importance.
Forensic taphonomy is the study of the postmortem changes to human remains, focusing largely on environmental effects—including decomposition in a variety of conditions and interaction with plants, insects, and other animals.
Examples:
- Varying burial environments
- Animal scavenging and transport
- Fluvial and human transport
- Cultural modifications
- Marine environments
- Subaerial weathering
- Thermal alteration
Is it bone?
The first thing the examining anthropologist must determine is whether the material is bone. A surprising number of other materials may be mistaken for bone, especially if they are covered with dirt or other substances. Ceramic shards, plastic, wood fragments, rocks, small bits of concrete can all be mistaken for bones or bone fragments. To ensure the material is bone, the anthropologist cleans the object and examines it closely, under magnification if necessary.
Is it human?
Once the anthropologist is sure that the material is bone, they must determine whether it came from a human or a non-human animal. All mammals share a generalized skeletal template, meaning they all have the same bones in roughly the same locations: a skull, spine (which ends in a tail), ribs (which support the internal organs), and four sets of limb bones. However, the shape of the bones and the way they relate to each other, differ between animals. By examining the size, shape, and structure of a bone, an anthropologist can determine if it is human.
If the Remains are human, was a crime committed?
Forensic anthropologists are also trained to examine evidence regarding the circumstances surrounding the death of an individual. This involves analyzing skeletal trauma and differentiating between injuries caused by bullets, sharp objects, blunt objects, or other instruments. Sharp force trauma results when a narrow or pointed object hits a small area. The stabs, slashes, and cuts typical of sharp force can penetrate deep enough to leave cut marks on the bone. In contrast, blunt force trauma results from a larger implement hitting a much broader area. Blunt force trauma can cause fractures of the arm and leg bones or crush and shatter the flat bones of the skull. Projectile trauma involves a high force applied over a small area. Projectile trauma can involve bullets, arrows, shrapnel, or any other small object delivered at high velocity. The damage caused by projectile trauma can be used to indicate the direction of travel of the projectile. The anthropologist may also find other forms of trauma including strangulation, electrocution, chemical or heat related trauma.
In addition to the injuries themselves, the patterns of injuries present on a body can be important to the case. Multiple, severe blunt injuries over the whole body may suggest a fall from a great height or a car accident. Sharp force injuries to the hands and lower arms may indicate defense wounds. The direction of projectile wounds can also be used to support or refute a suspect's story. It is the anthropologist's task to carefully record all trauma according to type, location, and number to reconstruct the overall picture of what happened to a person at the time of their death. And although anthropologists are not legally responsible for determining cause of death or manner of death, the information they collect can help the coroner/death investigator or medical examiner make their official judgment on the case.
Topics to be covered on Basic Human Osteology and Taphonomy include, but are not limited to:
- Identification of human skeletal remains
- Basic siding techniques
- Minimum number of individuals (MNI)
- Human/Non-human
- Process/stages of decomposition, time since death
- Natural Environment
- Decomposition
- Animal activity
- Entomological activity
- Gravity
- Concealment methods
- Lab/Practical Exercises
Forensic Archaeological Approaches to Recovering Human Remains
FA methods/techniques utilized most at outdoor scenes but can be used indoors.
Outdoor vs. Indoor scenes (limited time, hazardous or remote conditions, threat of lost or destroyed evidence, boundaries are not well defined, etc.)
Every scene is unique; techniques must be adapted to each scene.
General methodology of excavation and removal of remains is the same.
“Proper implementation of forensic archaeological techniques provides a scientific basis for interpreting the context in which remains, and associated evidence are found” (Christensen et. al, 2014).
Search Techniques Used in Locating Human Remains Outdoors
Non-intrusive (Ground-penetrating radar (GPR), conductivity meters, resistivity meters, magnetometers, metal detectors, LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), side-scan sonar, drones, cadaver dogs, line searches, etc.)
Intrusive (probe searches, shovel tests, forensic backhoes, bulldozers, shovels, rakes, etc.)
Types of Outdoor Search Scenes
- Surface
- Burial
- Submerged
- Fire
Planning the Search
- Determine what type of search to conduct.
- Strip/Line Search
- Grid Search
- Spiral Search
- Other methods
Use Pin flags or flagging tape to mark potential evidentiary items.
Be prepared with proper tools/equipment/methods.
Indicators to look for when searching for human remains:
- Skeletal or soft tissue remains.
- Clothing, personal objects, ammunition, and weapons
- Decomposition odor
- Brush heaps or loose-leaf heaps (to conceal remains)
- Animal activity or scavenging signs
- Unusual insect activity (Example: Adult fly hatch)
- Piles of disturbed soil
- New growth of vegetation
- Natural and physical forces that may have contributed to the surface scatter (e.g., fluvial transport, wind, erosion, gravity)
Once Scene Has Been Determined:
- Delineate boundaries of scene.
- How big is it? (Pin flag placement helps.)
- Plan how you will document scene.
- Photos/photo log
- Field notes/journal
- GPS
- Scene sketch
- Total station
- Computer
- Back-up methods
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Advantages:
Data can be downloaded and used in Global Information Systems (GIS) software that integrates your coordinates into pre-existing maps.
Very portable
Disadvantages:
Most handheld units have a wide range of variability (3 m to 15 m) but are much more accurate than those used before 2000.
GPS error rates overall are variable from unit to unit and it is recommended that readings be confirmed by an alternate mapping method or a total station if GPS units are used in forensic work.
Example: Forensic investigation of plane wreckage on a glacier in Alaska
Survey Techniques
- Transit survey systems (total stations)
- Datum (or fixed) points and benchmarks (USGS elevation points)
- Compass or rose azimuth survey.
Selecting a Framework for Mapping
- Control-point mapping
- Grid-system mapping
Control-Point Mapping
- Good for skeletal surface scatter
- Can use measurements taken at a right angle from the baseline of the established limits.
- Can use transit or total station (do not need baseline for total station)
- Compass rose azimuth (distance and degrees)
- Similar techniques are triangulation (angles) & trilateration (distance) which involves forming a triangle.
Grid-system Mapping
- Much more time consuming in relation to control-point mapping (best with burial or concentrated areas of evidence)
- Good control over the work area because specific regions within the grid can be mapped with more detail/accuracy.
Setting Limits and Datum for Mapping
- North-south or east-west
- Establish datum.
- 3-4-5 triangle (true hypotenuse triangle or Pythagorean theorem)
Mapping on a slope
- Ravines, rock falls, forested hollows, etc.
- Keep measuring tape horizontal using intermediate points in reference to the datum.
- Establish a baseline across the top of the slope where evidence is located.
- Form a 3-4-5 rectangle from the ends of the baseline using 3 m and 5 m lengths of survey string with line levels to identify the next two corner points.
- Record the locations of any evidence and surface contours using one of the upper corners as a datum and the control-point mapping framework described earlier (always use line level)
- Establish a new 3-4-5 rectangle that will lie below the previous one in a stair step formation; use the lower corner points from the initial rectangle as a baseline for the new one.
- Use one of the upper corners of the new rectangle as an intermediate datum; measure the height differential between the initial datum and depth measurements taken within the new area.
- Repeat this process moving down the slope until all evidence has been recorded.
Scene Documentation Should Include:
- Written notes
- Scene photos (overall, midrange, and close-ups views; with and without photo scale)
- Map and sketch of spatial distribution of remains & evidentiary items.
- Include scale.
- Include North arrow
- Author’s name, date, and location of datum
Removing Remains and Associated Evidence
- Collect geological, botanical, and entomological evidence.
- Conduct Skeletal Inventory
- Conduct Inventory of other items collected.
- Lay out in anatomical position.
- Determine MNI
- Remove everything but datum.
- Record temperature at scene
Packaging and Storage of Human Skeletal Remains
- Package skeletal remains in marked paper bags or other breathable material.
- Mold can hinder DNA analysis, and complicate anthropological analysis.
- If wet, allow to dry. Desiccant packs can help.
- Mark bags with date, location of recovery, person who packaged or recovered remains, and case ID number.
- Maintain proper Chain of Custody.
Interpretation and Reporting
- Generate report (include maps, photos, procedures, interpretation, and conclusions)
- Submit report to investigating agency.
Course Wrap-up and Assessment
References
Byers, Steven N. 2008. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology Third Addition. University of New Mexico-Valencia. Pearson.
Christensen, A.M., N.V. Passalacqua, and E.J. Bartelink. 2014. Forensic Anthropology: Current Methods and Practice. Boston: Elsevier.
Dupras, T.L., J.J. Schultz, S.M. Wheeler, and L.J. Williams. 2006. Forensic Recovery of Human Remains: Archaeological Approaches. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
LODGING
Holiday Inn & Suites-Bellingham Airport
4260 Mitchell Way
Bellingham, WA 98226
360-746-6844
Room Rate: $159 plus tax per night plus tax if applicable
Amenities: Free Wi-Fi, Free Parking
Booking Info: Use the following booking link to receive the special rate.
*Special rate expires September 1, 2023.
Holiday Inn & Suites-Bellingham Airport
4260 Mitchell Way
Bellingham, WA 98226
360-746-6844
Room Rate: $159 plus tax per night plus tax if applicable
Amenities: Free Wi-Fi, Free Parking
Booking Info: Use the following booking link to receive the special rate.
*Special rate expires September 1, 2023.
REGISTRATION
To register for this course, please download the Course Registration Form (PDF file). Fill out the form and email the completed PDF file to Phil Sanfilippo at phil@tritechusa.com.
To register for this course, please download the Course Registration Form (PDF file). Fill out the form and email the completed PDF file to Phil Sanfilippo at phil@tritechusa.com.